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Monday 12 December 2011

CIPPA is a departure from HCA and inflation in non-cash monetary items

CIPPA is a departure from HCA and inflation in non-cash monetary items

CIPPA is a departure from

(1) HCA, i.e. the erosion of real value in constant items caused by the stable measuring unit assumption during inflation and

(2) the erosion of the real value of monetary items that are not bank notes and coins caused by inflation.

CIPPA eliminates the erosion of real value in constant items caused by the stable measuring unit assumption during inflation by means of financial capital maintenance in units of constant purchasing power as authorized in IFRS in terms of a Daily Consumer Price Index or a daily monetized unit of account, e.g. the Unidad de Fomento in Chile.

This automatically maintains the real value of shareholders´ equity constant forever in all entities that at least break even in real value during inflation and deflation – ceteris paribus. A company can do this while dealing with all third parties still implementing HCA.

Entities can only stop the erosion of the real value of their monetary items that are not bank notes and coins caused by inflation (no 2 above) when all third parties they deal with agree to inflation-adjust non-cash monetary items (complete coordination in an economy). Under CIPPA they would currently account the net monetary loss caused by inflation in their net monetary item debit balances in the profit and loss account during low inflation.

$2.68 trillion of global government bonds were daily inflation-indexed bonds as at the end of 2009. Chile currently inflation-adjusts 20 to 25% of its broad M3 money supply according to the Central Bank of Chile.


Nicolaas Smith

Copyright (c) 2005-2011 Nicolaas J Smith. All rights reserved. No reproduction without permission.

Saturday 10 December 2011

A constant unit of account

A constant unit of account

         Theoretically a global perfectly stable unit of fixed constant real value would be equal to one monetary unit in a world economy in a global monetary union with a single currency under indefinite perfectly sustainable zero inflation.

In an ideal world, there would be one global currency subject to neither inflation nor deflation, nor political manipulation by any one or group of countries.




Neither of the two economic environments described above are very likely to be achieved. It is thus much more likely that a single unit of constant real value will come about via a global non–monetary index in a multi–currency world economy.



Nicolaas Smith

Copyright (c) 2005-2011 Nicolaas J Smith. All rights reserved. No reproduction without permission.

Friday 9 December 2011

Daily Consumer Price Index – DCPI

Daily Consumer Price Index – DCPI
(i)          Introduction

      Unstable money is the unstable medium of exchange, unstable store of value and unstable unit of account in the economy. Pre–monetary economies had units of account without money being available in the economy. (See Robert J. Shiller, Indexed Units of Account: Theory and Assessment of Historical Experience, Cowles Foundation Discussion Paper No 1171, 1998, p4).

      Today the economic values of all economic items are stated in terms of unstable money. Prices are expressed in unstable monetary units. Unstable money is the generally accepted unstable monetary unit of account used to value and account all economic activity by entities applying the stable measuring unit assumption as part of the traditional Historical Cost Accounting model under which they implement financial capital maintenance in fixed nominal monetary units with unstable real values in the world economy during inflation, deflation and hyperinflation.

      Unstable money is not fixed in constant real value. Unstable money is fixed in nominal value in economies subject to inflation, deflation and hyperinflation. Unstable money is a fixed nominal unit of account with a daily changing real value (purchasing power).  Financial capital maintenance in nominal monetary units, although approved in IFRS and by the United States Financial Accounting Standards Board (US FASB) and implemented worldwide, is a very popular accounting fallacy not yet extinct because it is impossible to maintain the real value of capital in nominal monetary units per se during inflation and hyperinflation.

      Bank notes and bank coins cannot currently be inflation–indexed or deflation–indexed which makes it impossible for money or the monetary unit of account to be a perfectly stable unit of constant real value during inflation, deflation and hyperinflation.

(ii)          Unidad de Fomento
      Notwithstanding or despite the above, monetary items in the form of certain time deposits  – not the actual bank notes and coins – and other monetary items, e.g. certain government capital market bonds, have been inflation–indexed in Chile since 1967 by means of the Unidad de Fomento which is now a monetized daily indexed unit of account.

      The Central Bank of Chile translates the “Unidad de Fomentoon their website to An Inflation–Indexed Accounting Unit and CPI–Indexed Unit of Account (UF).

      The UF´s value in Chilean escudos was originally (1967) updated every quarter which would be the official rate for the following quarter. The UF´s original value of 100 has never been rebased like most CPIs. It was updated monthly from October 1975, with the currency changeover to pesos, till 1977. Since July 1977 it was calculated daily by interpolation between the 10th of each month and the 9th of the following month, according to the monthly variation of the Indice de Precios al Consumidor (IPC), the Chilean Consumer Price Index. The Banco Central de Chile has calculated and published the UF´s value daily since 1990. The UF is a lagged daily interpolation of the Chilean CPI. The IPC is independently calculated and published monthly by the Chilean National Statistical Institute.

      The UF daily rate is available on the Chilean Central Bank´s website.

      Most bank deposits in Chile are 30–day non–indexed deposits or 90–day indexed deposits whose rates are expressed in terms of the UFs. Interest rates on the indexed deposits are expressed as a premium over the UFs. On maturity, the deposits are converted back to pesos at the current UF rate. Shiller, 1998, p3.

(iii)          Definition: Daily Consumer Price Index

      Daily inflation–indexing monetary items is thus not a new concept. Chile is the country which is closest to inflation–indexing its entire money supply. 30–Day deposits are not currently inflation–indexed in Chile.  90–Day deposits and various other monetary items are inflation–indexed daily resulting in 20 to 25% of Chile´s broad M3 money supply being inflation–indexed on a daily basis in terms of the UF according to the Banco Central de Chile.

        The Consumer Price Index is an example of a non–monetary general price level index. The annual percentage change in the CPI indicates the annual rate of inflation. The CPI for a particular calendar month is normally published in the second or third week of the next calendar month.

        A daily instead of a monthly general price–level index is required to implement financial capital maintenance in units of constant purchasing power during inflation and deflation (Constant Item Purchasing Power Accounting). Using the CPI published monthly may result in sudden increases or decreases in values on the date the new monthly CPI is published. A Daily CPI, which is a lagged daily interpolation of the monthly–published CPI, solves this problem. The UF is a very successful monetized daily indexed unit of account used in Chile during the last 44 years and was copied by Ecuador, Mexico and Columbia. (See Shiller, 1998, p6.)

      Financial capital maintenance in units of constant purchasing power during hyperinflation would require measurement in either a daily parallel hard currency exchange rate – normally the daily US Dollar parallel rate – or a Brazilian style Unidade Real de Valor daily non–monetary index primarily based on the US Dollar daily parallel rate. The URV was an excellent daily non–monetary index published by the government during hyperinflation in Brazil because it was mainly based on the US Dollar parallel rate (a hard currency parallel rate is essential during hyperinflation which is an exceptional circumstance according to the IASB), but, the CPI was also included in the formula.

        Implementing IAS 29 does not result in financial capital maintenance in units of constant purchasing power during hyperinflation. IAS 29 simply requires restatement of Historical Cost or Current Cost financial statements in terms of the period–end monthly CPI during hyperinflation. Inflation–adjusted financial statements in terms of IAS 29 are not a departure from, but, an extension to HCA during hyperinflation.

Definition


           A Daily Consumer Price Index is a lagged daily interpolation of the CPI


 The DCPI is based on the formula to calculate the daily price of a government inflation–indexed bond in a particular country, e.g., the formula to calculate the daily price of TIPS in the US, or the formula used to calculate the Unidad de Fomento in Chile.

Every country which issues inflation–indexed government bonds has a Daily Consumer Price Index based on the respective CPI. In practice, a DCPI is used to inflation–adjust monetary items, to update historical variable items and to measure constant items in units of constant purchasing power on a daily basis under Constant Item Purchasing Power Accounting; i.e. financial capital maintenance in units of constant purchasing power during low inflation and deflation as authorized in International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) in the original Framework (1989), Par 104 (a).

       The Unidad de Fomento in Chile is the most successful monetized daily indexed unit of account to date.

       A DCPI is calculated and published daily, for example, the UF published daily by the Banco Central de Chile. The monthly published CPI for the first day of any month is only available – at the earliest – round–about the tenth of the next month: up to 41 days later. The SA CPI for the first day of a calendar month can become available up to the 24th of the next calendar month: i.e. up to 55 days later. This is very impractical for daily financial capital maintenance in units of constant purchasing power.

(iv)        Formula

“The UF is now a lagged daily interpolation of the monthly consumer price
index. The formula for computation of the UF on day  t is:

                              UF t = UF t–1 × (1+ π) to the power 1/d

where π is the inflation rate for the calendar month preceding the calendar month in which  t falls if  t is between day ten and the last day of the month (and d is the number of days in the calendar month in which t falls), and π is the inflation rate for the second calendar month before the calendar month in which  t falls if  t is between day one and day nine of the month (and d is the number of days in the calendar month before the calendar month in which t falls).”  See Shiller, 1998, p3.

The above formula applies to the UF in Chile where the CPI for the current calendar month used to be available on the 10th of the next calendar month. The general case formula for a UF–based DCPI is stated as follows:

On day t   

                                     DI t  = DI t–1  X  (1 + π) to the power 1/d

where π is the monthly inflation rate for the second calendar month before the calendar month in which t  falls if t  is on or between day one and the day of publication of the CPI of the previous calendar month (and d  is the number of days in the calendar month before the calendar month in which t  falls), and π is the monthly inflation rate for the calendar month preceding the calendar month in which t  falls if t  is on or between the day the CPI for the previous calendar month is published and the last day of the month (and d is the number of days in the calendar month in which t  falls).

           The monthly inflation rate for a calendar month is calculated using the CPI for that month and for the preceding month. The DCPIs within a given calendar month thus depend on the CPI for each of the three preceding months. For example, the July DCPIs depend before the day the June CPI is published on the CPI for April and May, and starting with the day the June CPI is published on the CPI for May and June.

          A DCPI is very similar to, but, not exactly the same as a monetized daily indexed unit of account, e.g. the UF in Chile. The UF is monetized; i.e. it is stated in terms of the Chilean peso. That is not the case with a DCPI. A DCPI is not automatically monetized.

       “The UF was and is an amount of currency related to the Indice de Precios al Consumidor (IPC), the consumer price index for Chile.” (Shiller, 1998, p3)

       A DCPI is, like the monthly CPI on which it is based, a non–monetary general price–level index value. Monetization depends on generally accepted monetary practices in an economy: see the UF in Chile. A DCPI can be monetized and used as a monetized daily indexed unit of account with payments being made in the national monetary unit – depending on users in an economy. Monetization is not a necessity.

      “An exchange rate between the unit (the UF) and the true money or legal tender, in Chile the peso, is defined using an index number (such as the consumer price index), and payments are executed in money. Thus, the indexed units of account facilitate payments that are tied to the index number, without being a means of payment.”  (See Shiller, 1998, p2.)

       A DCPI is not a unit of account just like the CPI is not a unit of account for accounting purposes. The US Dollar, Euro, Yen, Yuan, etc are the nominally fixed monetary units of account, unstable in real value, used in their respective countries as the national unstable monetary unit of account for accounting purposes during inflation, deflation and hyperinflation. The US, EU, Japanese and Chinese CPIs are not units of account for accounting purposes. They are non–monetary general price–level indices. So are their DCPIs. Prices are not quoted in CPIs or in DCPIs – although they can be.

Nicolaas Smith

Copyright (c) 2005-2011 Nicolaas J Smith. All rights reserved. No reproduction without permission.

Wednesday 7 December 2011

Consumer Price Index

Consumer Price Index
         The CPI is the weighted average index value of a typical basket of consumer goods purchased by a typical consumer statistically stated as a non–monetary initial index value of 100 at the start date. The CPI is thus fixed in real terms – not in nominal terms. It changes monthly in nominal terms, but, it stays fixed in real terms.

         An example is the harmonized consumer price index of the Euro Area stated as the non–monetary index value of 100 in 2005. This fixed internal unit of real value is then compared to the weighted average price of the typical basket of consumer goods and services a year later in order to determine the annual rate at which inflation is eroding the real value of only money and other monetary items in only the monetary economy or deflation is creating real value in only money and other monetary items in only the monetary economy. Inflation and deflation have no effect on the real value of non–monetary items. The same is true for hyperinflation.

            The stable measuring unit assumption (not inflation and hyperinflation) erodes the real value of constant items never maintained constant (never measured in units of constant purchasing power in a double–entry accounting model where the real value of capital is equal to the real value of net assets) during inflation and hyperinflation under the Historical Cost paradigm. Similarly, it is not deflation, but, the stable measuring unit assumption that creates real value in constant items never maintained constant (qualified as per the previous sentence) during deflation under HCA.

       The annual percentage change in the CPI indicates the annual rate at which only the real value of the national (or monetary union, e.g. the European Monetary Union) monetary unit (money) and other monetary items is being eroded by the economic processes of inflation and hyperinflation or being increased by the economic process of deflation.


Nicolaas Smith Copyright (c) 2005-2011 Nicolaas J Smith. All rights reserved. No reproduction without permission.

Tuesday 6 December 2011

Unidad de Fomento

Unidad de Fomento

The Central Bank of Chile translates the “Unidad de Fomentoon their website to An Inflation–Indexed Accounting Unit and CPI–Indexed Unit of Account (UF).

      The UF´s value in Chilean escudos was originally (1967) updated every quarter which would be the official rate for the following quarter. The UF´s original value of 100 has never been rebased like most CPIs. It was updated monthly from October 1975, with the currency changeover to pesos, till 1977. Since July 1977 it was calculated daily by interpolation between the 10th of each month and the 9th of the following month, according to the monthly variation of the Indice de Precios al Consumidor (IPC), the Chilean Consumer Price Index. The Banco Central de Chile has calculated and published the UF´s value daily since 1990. The UF is a lagged daily interpolation of the Chilean CPI. The IPC is independently calculated and published monthly by the Chilean National Statistical Institute.

      The UF daily rate is available on the Chilean Central Bank´s website.

      Most bank deposits in Chile are 30–day non–indexed deposits or 90–day indexed deposits whose rates are expressed in terms of the UFs. Interest rates on the indexed deposits are expressed as a premium over the UFs. On maturity, the deposits are converted back to pesos at the current UF rate. Shiller, 1998, p3.


Nicolaas Smith Copyright (c) 2005-2011 Nicolaas J Smith. All rights reserved. No reproduction without permission.

Monday 5 December 2011

Differences between CIPPA and CPPA

Differences between CIPPA and CPPA

"Constant Purchasing Power Accounting (CPP) is a consistent method of indexing accounts by means of a general index which reflects changes in the purchasing power of money.  It therefore attempts to deal with the inflation problem in the sense in which this is popularly understood, as a decline in the value of the currency. It attempts to deal with this problem by converting all of the currency unit measurement in accounts into units at a common date by means of the index." Geoffrey Whittington, Inflation Accounting – An Introduction to the Debate, 1983. (My bold text).

          It is very clear from the above quote that Prof Whittington also consideredat that time – that “indexing accounts by means of a general index” would “deal with the inflation problem” and not the stable measuring unit assumption problem.

         CPPA is dealt with in this book as it is implemented in terms of IAS 29 Financial Reporting in Hyperinflationary Economies.

        CIPPA automatically maintains the constant purchasing power of shareholders´ equity constant for an indefinite period of time in entities that at least break even in real value during low inflation and deflation – ceteris paribus – whether they own any revaluable fixed assets or not, by measuring financial capital maintenance in units of constant purchasing power in terms of a Daily CPI. The net monetary loss or gain and the net constant item loss or gain are calculated and accounted in the income statement. CIPPA is not an inflation accounting model. CIPPA is a price–level basic accounting alternative to HCA authorized in IFRS during low inflation and deflation. The stable measuring unit assumption is rejected under CIPPA.

            Differences
                                                                          
1.  When implemented

 CIPPA
Implemented during low inflation and deflation.

CPPA  
Only implemented during very high and hyperinflation as required by IAS 29.

2. Stable measuring unit assumption

          CIPPA
No stable measuring unit assumption.
 
CPPA
The stable measuring unit assumption is implemented in the preparation of Historical Cost or Current Cost financial reports which are then restated in terms of the period-end monthly CPI during hyperinflation. 

          3. Capital concept

           CIPPA
Constant purchasing power financial capital concept implemented. 

CPPA
Nominal financial capital concept  implemented in HC or CC financial reports then restated in terms of the period-end monthly CPI.

4. Capital maintenance concept
             CIPPA
Financial capital maintenance in units of constant purchasing power concept
implemented; e.g. shareholders´ equity is measured in units of constant
purchasing power daily in terms of a Daily Consumer Price Index.
                                                                                                           
           CPPA
          Financial captial maintenance in nominal monetary units concept implemen-
          ted; shareholders´ equity is measured in nominal monetary untis in HC or CC fin-
           ancial reports and restated at the period-end monthly CPI.

         5. Inflation accounting model
            CIPPA
Not an inflation accounting model.
         
CPPA
An inflation accounting model only implemented during very high and hyperinflationn.

6. IFRS authorization

            CIPPA
Originally authorized in IFRS in the Framework (1989), Par 104 (a). 

CPPA
Authorized in IFRS in IAS 29.          

7. Daily or period-end measurement

            CIPPA
 All historic and current items are measured daily in terms of a DCPI as detailed below.
                                                             
CPPA
Only non-monetary items are restated (not measured daily in units of constant purchasing power at the time of a transaction or event) at the end of the financial period in terms of the period-end monthly CPI.
                                                                     
8. Measurement of monetary items

CIPPA
Historic and current period monetary items are inflation-adjusted daily in     
terms of the DCPI. When not inflation-adjusted daily during the current period, the net monetary loss or gain is calculated and accounted. 
        
              CPPA
              Monetary items are measured in nominal monetary units. They are not inflation -adjusted or restated. The net monetary loss or gain is calculated and accounted.

             9. Measurement of variable items

                  CIPPA
      Variable items are measured in terms of IFRS and updated daily in terms of the Daily CPI.
                                              
CPPANo split of non-monetary items  in variable and constant items. All non-monetary items in  period-end HC or CC financial reports are restated in terms of the period-end monthly CPI.

10. Measurement of constant items

                  CIPPA
     Constant items are measured in units of constant purchasing power on a daily basis in terms of the DCPI.

     CPPA
No split of non-monetary items in variable and constant items. All non-monetary items in period-end HC or CC financial reports are restated in terms of the period-end CPI.
                                             
11. Net constant item loss or gain
                  CIPPA
    Net constant item loss or gain calculated and accounted. This is a new accounting concept.

      CPPA
A net constant item loss or gain concept does not exist under HCA, CPPA or IFRS (IAS 29).

                12. Measurement of trade debtors and trade creditors
                 
                  CIPPA
          Constant real value non-monetary payables and receivables (e.g. trade debtors and trade creditors) are measured in units of constant purchasing power daily in terms of a DCPI.
                CPPA                                                                   
                Trade debtors and trade creditors and other payables and receivables are treated as monetary items and measured in nominal monetary units in HC or CC financial reports. They are not restated.

            13. Consumer Price Index 

               CIPPA
  Daily Consumer Price Index used during low inflation and deflation.  
        
            CPPA
            Monthly consumer price index used during hyperinflation.
Nicolaas Smith Copyright (c) 2005-2011 Nicolaas J Smith. All rights reserved. No reproduction without permission.

Friday 2 December 2011

TIPS are nominal bonds during deflation: better investments than during inflation


TIPS are nominal bonds during deflation: better investments than during inflation

      The 6-monthly TIPS coupon payments are inflation- and deflation-adjusted; i.e., they are maintained at their real interest rates during inflation and deflation.
      The principal is repaid at maturity. If the nominal value of the principal is lower than the issuance value due to deflation, then the nominal issuance value will be repaid. The principal is thus inflation-indexed during inflation, but, it is a nominal bond during deflation; i.e., it is not deflation-adjusted for repayment purposes, only in order to calculate the constant real interest rate during inflation and deflation. The TIPS principal will gain real value during deflation since it will be repaid at its nominal issuance value.
     True to its name, the Treasury Inflation-Protected Security´s principal or capital amount is protected against the risk of losing real value during inflation. Additionally, the principal also gains in real value during deflation. TIPS are nominal bonds with a constant real interest rate or coupon payments during deflation.
     The TIPS principal gains in nominal value during inflation (its real value stays the same) while it gains in real value (its nominal value stays the same) during deflation. TIPS coupon payments stay the same in real value during inflation and deflation. TIPS are thus worth more in real value during deflation than inflation. TIPS are better investments during deflation than inflation. TIPS are inflation-protected and deflation-enriched with constant coupon payments.



Nicolaas Smith Copyright (c) 2005-2011 Nicolaas J Smith. All rights reserved. No reproduction without permission.